PASTURE MANAGEMENT vs. ECTOPARASITES Ticks (เห็บ) Boophilus microplus Hyalomma spp. Lice (เหา) Biting lices (Mallophages) Damalinia bovis, Damalinia ovis Sucking lices (Anoplura) Linognathus sp., Haematopinus sp. Mites (หมัด) Sacroptes sp. Psoroptes sp. Chorioptic sp. Biting flies (แมลงวัน เจาะดูด) Haematobia spp. (horn flies, buffalo flies) Glossina spp. (tsetse flies) Similium spp. (black flies) Tabanidae (march flies)

PASTURE MANAGEMENT vs. ECTOPARASITES Culicidae (mosquitoes) Ceratopogonidae (biting midges) Calliphoridae (myiasis flies) Oestridae & Gastropiphilidae Stomoxys calcitran, Tabanus spp. (screw-worm flies, sheep blow-flies bot and warble flies)

อันตรายจากพยาธิภายนอก กัด ดูดเลือด รบกวนการพักผ่อน เป็นพาหะของโรค และจุลินทรีย์อื่น ๆ อาจปล่อย สารพิษสู่สัตว์ นำโรคติดต่อสู่คน

Internal Parasite Disease Nematodes พยาธิตัวกลม Haemonchus contortus พยาธิปากขอ Ostertagia ostertagi Trichostrongylus axei Cooperia oncophora Dictyocaulus viviparus พยาธิในปอด Strongyloides papillosus พยาธิเส้นด้าย Trichostronglus colubriformis Haemonchus circumcincta Nematodirus spathiger Dictyocaulus filaria พยาธิในปอด Oesophagostomos columbianum

Internal Parasite Disease Trematodes พยาธิใบไม้ Liver fluke : Fasiola hepatica Rumen fluke : Paramphistomum spp. Cestodes พยาธิตัวตืด พยาธิตัวแบน Moniezia spp., Stilesia spp ., Avitellina spp. Coccidiosis โปรโตซัว Eimeria zurrnii, E. auburnensis, E. bovis

PASTURE MANAGEMENT vs. ENDOPARASITES Damage to the abomasum Damage to the intestine

ปัจจัยที่มีผลต่อปริมาณพยาธิ Parasite host interaction size of population growth activity host condition / host resistance (breed and nutritional status) Climate moisture temperature daylength

Pasture species vs thick larvae Milinis minutriflora, Pennisetum clandestinum, Cynodon dactylon < Brachiaria decumbens, Hyparena rufa, Andropogon gayanus Stylosanthes scabra cv. seca, S. viscosa have less lavar than other legumes why ? toxic exudate from plants less contact between plant and animal less humidity in plant community good pasture nutrition

Cattle density (stocking rate) life cycle of paarsite Cattle density (stocking rate) host resistance & movement Larval availability survival host finding Thick challenge feed & mating engorge female thick Stage of pasture eeg laying development survival Host resistance Control measures dipping / spraying

Temporary loss of Immunity Lactation Poor nutrition Absence of larval challenge Genotype Persistance challenge Good nutrition Degree of immunity or resistance Genotype Lack of larval challenge Poor nutrition The general factor responsible for variation in host resistance to parasite

A = PARASITE REDUCE IN EFFICIENCY OF USE OF ME B = PARASITE RDEDUCE FEED INTAKE (MILD INFECTION) C = SEVERE INFECTION ANIMALS A Uninfected animal B Energy retention (ER) C MEm ; Metabolizable Energy intake (MEI)

Climatic factor affect on larvae development, survival and infection Temp. Moisture Rate of larval development SPRING SUMMER AUTUMN heat tolerance sp. cold tolerance sp. SPRING SUMMER AUTUMN Rate of larval survival Infective larvae on pasture SPRING SUMMER AUTUMN SPRING SUMMER AUTUMN

Boophilus microplus on Bos indicus x B. tanrus Latitude Jan-Mar. Apr-Jun. Jul-Sep Oct-Dec. 19o 12 30 30 35 23o 37 58 15 49 27o 13 44 7 1 hot&wet warm cool&dry warm&dry senescence with strom pasture

Vertical distribution of infective larvae on herbage Horizontal distribution of infective larvae on herbage pasture height (cm) decreasing 10 5 0 25 50 75 % frequency

adult Soil / Plant /Water rest rotational grazing cut plowing draining burning egg / larvae Infection cycle of parasite in the systems

to control parasite vai pasture management change animal density (stocking rate) rotation rest pasture or pasture spelling burning deferred grazing change type of host (animal) ; Zebu is more resistance to thick than european breed

References Humphreys, L.R. 1978. Tropical Pasture and Fodder Crops. Longman Gr. Essex. 135 pp. Humphreys, L.R. 1994. Tropical Forages: Their Role in Sustainable Agriculture. Longman Sci. & Tech. Essex. 414 pp. Lazenby, A. 1988. The grass crop in perspective: selection, plant performance and animal production. in (Jones, M.B. and Lazenby, A. eds) The Grass Crop: The Physiology Basis of Production. Chapman and Hall. London: 369 pp. (SB197 G77 1988)

References Nicol, A.M. 1987. Feeding Livestock on Pasture. New Zealand Society of Animal Production. Ruakura Agricultural Research Centre, Private bag. Hamilton: 145 pp. Sutherst, S.W. 1987. Ectoparasites and herbivore nutrition. in (Hacker, J.B. and Ternouth, J.H. eds) The Nutrition of Herbivores. Academic Press. Sydney: 191- 209. Sykes, A.R. 1987. Endoparasites and herbivore nutrition. in (Hacker, J.B. and Ternouth, J.H. eds) The Nutrition of Herbivores. Academic Press. Sydney: 211-232.